Steel yield simulator
Choose the starting stock (conventional tapered ingot, continuous cast billet, forged or rolled bar), enter the parts you want to forge and the reduction ratio. The simulator tells you where to cut, how many ingots or bars to use, the reduction of each cut and the yield in %.
Constant-volume calculation. Part dimensions are forging dimensions (machining allowance already included). Scale and crop ends from the tables of the open-die forging calculator. Indicative result: the final cutting plan is confirmed by our engineering team on the order.
Cutting plan
Dimensions from the large end. Colors = items.
| Ingot or bar | Item | Cut position | Length | Section at the small end | Cut weight | Operation | Reduction | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| – | ||||||||
Reference ingots
The three squares L-2500, L-2700 and L-3000 are sizes published by Sidenor (Spain); the others are typical market sizes. Brazilian makers of forging ingots, such as Dedini (ingots of 4.2 to 18.6 t) and Gerdau Special Steel, do not publish their mold sizes. For your own ingot, choose "Custom" and enter the large end, small end and usable height (without the hot top).
| Shape | Large end | Small end | Usable height | Taper per side | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Square | 537 | 408 | 1,630 | 4.0 % | Sidenor L-2500 |
| Square | 537 | 408 | 1,730 | 3.7 % | Sidenor L-2700 |
| Square | 510 | 350 | 2,000 | 4.0 % | Sidenor L-3000 |
| Round | 330 | 290 | 900 | 2.2 % | Typical size |
| Round | 420 | 370 | 1,200 | 2.1 % | Typical size |
| Square | 300 | 260 | 900 | 2.2 % | Typical size |
| Square | 400 | 350 | 1,200 | 2.1 % | Typical size |
| Hexagonal | 350 | 310 | 1,000 | 2.0 % | Typical size |
| Octagonal | 420 | 370 | 1,300 | 1.9 % | Typical size |
| Octagonal | 500 | 440 | 1,500 | 2.0 % | Typical size |
| Octagonal | 600 | 530 | 1,800 | 1.9 % | Typical size |
Round: diameter. Square, hexagonal and octagonal: across flats. Rounded ingot corners are not deducted.
Starting stock rules
| Origin | Shapes | Taper | Core void? |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cast: conventional ingot casting (ingot) | Round, Square, Hexagonal, Octagonal | Yes | Optional: discards a round of up to 70 mm at the center |
| Cast: continuous casting (billet) | Round, Square, Hexagonal | No | Optional: discards a round of up to 70 mm at the center |
| Forged | Round, Square | No | Not applicable |
| Rolled | Round, Square | No | Not applicable |
Formulas used
| Quantity | How to calculate | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Usable section | A(x) − core void area | A(x) = k × d(x)²: k = π/4 (round), 1 (square), √3/2 (hexagonal), 2(√2 − 1) (octagonal); d = diameter or across flats. |
| Dimension along the ingot | d(x) = d₁ + (d₂ − d₁) × x ÷ H | x measured from the large end; constant section for billets and bars. |
| Starting volume per part | Forged V × (1 + scale + crop ends) + piercing slug | Same tables as the open-die forging calculator. |
| Cut length | L such that the integral of the usable section from x to x + L = starting volume | Plus 3 mm of saw per cut. |
| Reduction when drawing out | usable section at the small end of the cut ÷ forged section | Conservative: the small end of the cut has the smallest section. |
| Reduction when upsetting | cut length ÷ forged height | Discs, rings and parts with a section larger than the starting one. |
| Yield | weight of the forged parts ÷ weight of the ingots or bars used | Also shown without the leftover of the last ingot or bar. |
For a single part, with machining allowance and slenderness, use the open-die forging calculator. For the weight of bars and parts, the weight calculator. About the service, see open-die forging and the forging and testing standards.
Frequently asked questions
How do you calculate the yield of an ingot for forging?
Add up the volume of each forged part, add scale, crop ends and the piercing slug, and divide by the usable section of the ingot to get the cut length. Yield is the weight of the forged parts divided by the weight of the ingots or bars used. The simulator does this part by part, with the ingot taper, the core void and the saw cut.
Why does a conventional ingot have a taper?
The ingot is cast in a mold and needs a taper to be stripped from it. So the section changes along the height: at the small end, the same weight needs a longer cut and the reduction is lower. The simulator cuts from the large end and calculates each cut with the real section of that stretch.
What is a core void and how much is lost?
It is the central zone of the cast ingot with shrinkage and porosity, which cannot be used in the part. When there is a core void, the simulator discards a round of up to 70 mm diameter at the center, along the whole length: that material counts neither for the part volume nor for the reduction.
Which reduction ratio should I use?
The default is 3:1, the usual minimum reduction to close porosity and refine the grain of cast material. Critical parts may require 4:1 or more, according to the standard or the customer specification. The reduction of each cut is the usable starting section divided by the forged section (drawing out) or the cut length divided by the forged height (upsetting).
What is the difference between conventional and continuous casting?
A conventional ingot is tapered and can be round, square, hexagonal or octagonal. A continuous cast billet has a constant section (round, square or hexagonal) and is cut to the length needed. Forged or rolled bars, round or square, also have a constant section.
Which losses does the simulator include?
Core void (when present), scale and crop ends from the same tables as the open-die forging calculator, the piercing slug in rings and tubes, 3 mm of saw per cut and the leftover in the last ingot or bar.
